Whenever you watch your favorite CSI TV show, you may have heard of the victim being jacked up on mind-altering drugs such as hallucinogens that were found in a toxicology screen.
What are hallucinogens and how do they differ from hallucinations and delusions?
In this article, I will attempt to explain what each of these terms is.
Hallucinogens are drugs responsible for changing one's perceptions and mood, contribute to delusions, and promote hallucinations. Delusions are false beliefs that have very little basis in reality. For instance, one may believe that his dead mother is coming back from the grave when in reality she has been dead for many years.
Hallucinations are false experiences that affect our senses. They are not real and may affect all of our senses such as sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. For instance, one could claim to feel ants crawling all over his skin when in reality there ARE no ants whatsoever. This is an experience that has affected a person's touch.
The most commonly encountered hallucinogenic drugs occur naturally from plants such as marijuana, mushrooms, and peyote. Other types of hallucinogens are synthesized in a laboratory. They include LSD, PCP, and STP.
Hitting on Mary Jane
Thus far, the mildest and perhaps the most frequently used hallucinogenic drug is marijuana. Marijuana has several nicknames, which include Mary Jane, pot, and grass. It is a derivative of a plant called Cannabis sativa. The active ingredient sought after in this plant is a molecule called tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). THC is found in marijuana at a concentration between 2 and 6 Cannabis sative plant is called hashish which contains about 12 percent THC.
The human body catabolizes THC into one of several products, the most important being 9-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol (9-carboxy-THC), which shows up in one's urine. When somebody is subjected to a urinalysis, the drug test will be positive for that the person has been using marijuana lately. The drawback of this drug test is that someone can still test positive for the presence of 9-carboxy-THC in minute levels if he is exposed to second hand marijuana smoke.
You may have seen the CSI: Miami episode in which Eric Delko was asked to do a urinalysis that yielded a positive result. Later, his sister, Marie, attested that Eric is not a marijuana smoker but rather she is, and Eric was only around when she blazed up to self-medicate herself since she suffers from cancer.
Mushrooms and Cacti
Possession of marijuana is illegal in many states but the possession of mushrooms is not. If somebody is caught with mushrooms, it is up to a toxicology laboratory to determine if psilocin and psilocybin, the psychoactive chemicals found in mushrooms, are present for the mushrooms to be considered illegal.
Peyote is the Spanish word that refers to a small Mexican cactus. The sought after ingredient in peyote is a molecule called mescaline, which is a hallucinogen. Many Native American tribal cultures have used peyote in social gatherings for centuries. The external surface of the peyote plant is covered with small round bumps called peyote buttons. These bumps are compartmentalized like an orange. Every compartment contains a cottonlike tuft within.
Experimentally, gas chromatography (GC) or thin layer chromatography (TLC) can identify the presence of mescaline. Unlike mushrooms, further testing is not needed because possession of the peyote plant, just like marijuana, is considered illegal.
Synthetic Hallucinogens
There exists a wide array of laboratory produced hallucinogens. The most common is lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and phencyclidine (PCP). PCP is sometimes known angel dust. LSD is very strong. As little as 25 micrograms can produce a high that lasts up to 12 hours. Hallucinations associated with this popular 60's drug are vivid. Even though LSD is not fatal, there have been cases in which LSD users have harmed others or themselves because of their changes in perceptions. A chemical test called the Van Urk Color Test can test for the presence of LSD.
A forensic toxicologist can use either blood or urine to check for the presence of PCP. For PCP users, a urinalysis can yield a positive result for up to a week after the last use.
The next time you watch your favorite CSI TV show, you will have a better understanding of the drugs and the drug tests used to determine if a user is positive for a certain hallucinogen.
Thursday, October 22, 2009
Environmental Diseases - Determining Causation of Toxic Damage
If you have been diagnosed with mesothelioma, cancer, or any other disorder without a clear natural cause, you may want to look into environmental and chemical causes for your malady. Although not every case in the hospital is an illness caused by toxic substances, many of them may be, and in the cases where they are, the corporations or individuals responsible for the damage to your system may also be found liable for financial recompense in a court of law for that injury.
Litigation may not always be the solution to our problems, however in the case of toxic poisoning, it can help to relieve a great deal of the burden from the family and loved ones of the affected person and ease some of their worries about finances in a time that is difficult and painful enough. The first thing to do if you suspect that you have been a victim of toxic chemical poisoning is to contact a toxicologist who can tell you what is likely to have caused your medical problems and who will be able to help you wade through your personal and work history to find sources of potential exposure.
Doctors who specialize in forensic toxicology, medical toxicology, and environmental toxicology can continue to be extremely useful after you have decided to file your complaint in a court of law as well. These medical professionals are experts in determining the true causation of toxic damage to the human body and many are willing to provide their sources as expert witnesses in a court of law to give testimony about the causes and effects of toxic chemical exposure.
These specialists may be able to help in different but similar cases as well, providing expert witness testimony in cases where intoxication, drug use, or other forms of chemical abuse may come into question. A good toxicology expert witness will sort through the case files and any other necessary information to help you determine the validity of your case and to help defend you when the evidence is in your favor.
If you are ailing, do not wait until you are too sick to do anything about it, and certainly do not decide to forget about potential causes of your malady. Think back over your history of potential toxic exposure, and contact a toxicologist if you think that you have a case. They may be able to help you make your case and ease your life after this terrible blow.
Litigation may not always be the solution to our problems, however in the case of toxic poisoning, it can help to relieve a great deal of the burden from the family and loved ones of the affected person and ease some of their worries about finances in a time that is difficult and painful enough. The first thing to do if you suspect that you have been a victim of toxic chemical poisoning is to contact a toxicologist who can tell you what is likely to have caused your medical problems and who will be able to help you wade through your personal and work history to find sources of potential exposure.
Doctors who specialize in forensic toxicology, medical toxicology, and environmental toxicology can continue to be extremely useful after you have decided to file your complaint in a court of law as well. These medical professionals are experts in determining the true causation of toxic damage to the human body and many are willing to provide their sources as expert witnesses in a court of law to give testimony about the causes and effects of toxic chemical exposure.
These specialists may be able to help in different but similar cases as well, providing expert witness testimony in cases where intoxication, drug use, or other forms of chemical abuse may come into question. A good toxicology expert witness will sort through the case files and any other necessary information to help you determine the validity of your case and to help defend you when the evidence is in your favor.
If you are ailing, do not wait until you are too sick to do anything about it, and certainly do not decide to forget about potential causes of your malady. Think back over your history of potential toxic exposure, and contact a toxicologist if you think that you have a case. They may be able to help you make your case and ease your life after this terrible blow.
Toxic Chemicals Used in Everyday Products - A Necessary Evil?
Although there are many dangerous chemicals in our environment now, many of which are manmade, many of these chemicals also make our lives better and easier when they are used properly. A complete lack of use of any chemical that may be toxic or harmful to people would set us back quite a ways in modern production and manufacturing, and impact the quality of life of people everywhere.
It makes sense in light of this fact that we should begin to slowly step away from the use of dangerous or toxic chemicals as much as possible, but that this move should be slow over time to allow industries to adapt to the changes in their own potential and procedures. Where this is not possible, or for those industries that are unwilling to curtail their use of these chemicals, safety should be a focus and a priority.
The safety of both workers and users of the products that are created with or make use of toxic chemicals should be a priority, and in cases where it is not and where the inevitable accidents happen, lawsuits emerge to make things right for those who were injured. Sometimes, however, lawsuits are filed against companies who have not been negligent with the safety of other people, or people who get sick misunderstand the potential causation and look to the wrong company or situation to blame for their illness.
A doctor who specializes in forensic, medical, and environmental toxicology can be of immense importance both to the people filing the lawsuit, and to the people who are being sued for causing toxic exposure of any kind. This kind of professional can analyze the potential causation of the disease and determine what toxic exposure or natural situations may have contributed to the development of the disease.
A doctor specializing in toxicology is the kind of professional to seek out as an expert witness for both the plaintiff and the defendant of a toxic poisoning lawsuit. The defense of the lawsuit will want to know whether they were indeed responsible so that they know whether they wish to present a defense for themselves in court, or whether they want to settle. The plaintiff would similarly benefit, knowing whether they have true cause to pursue such a lawsuit or whether they have been falsely informed and should seek out a different cause for their suffering or drop the matter entirely.
It makes sense in light of this fact that we should begin to slowly step away from the use of dangerous or toxic chemicals as much as possible, but that this move should be slow over time to allow industries to adapt to the changes in their own potential and procedures. Where this is not possible, or for those industries that are unwilling to curtail their use of these chemicals, safety should be a focus and a priority.
The safety of both workers and users of the products that are created with or make use of toxic chemicals should be a priority, and in cases where it is not and where the inevitable accidents happen, lawsuits emerge to make things right for those who were injured. Sometimes, however, lawsuits are filed against companies who have not been negligent with the safety of other people, or people who get sick misunderstand the potential causation and look to the wrong company or situation to blame for their illness.
A doctor who specializes in forensic, medical, and environmental toxicology can be of immense importance both to the people filing the lawsuit, and to the people who are being sued for causing toxic exposure of any kind. This kind of professional can analyze the potential causation of the disease and determine what toxic exposure or natural situations may have contributed to the development of the disease.
A doctor specializing in toxicology is the kind of professional to seek out as an expert witness for both the plaintiff and the defendant of a toxic poisoning lawsuit. The defense of the lawsuit will want to know whether they were indeed responsible so that they know whether they wish to present a defense for themselves in court, or whether they want to settle. The plaintiff would similarly benefit, knowing whether they have true cause to pursue such a lawsuit or whether they have been falsely informed and should seek out a different cause for their suffering or drop the matter entirely.
Bisphenol A - The Story of Political Toxicology
Bisphenol A, or BPA, is a useful, even critical industrial chemical used to make such diverse products as polycarbonate food containers, baby bottles, can coatings, and dental fillings. It is also the subject of countless reports that warn of its dangers, despite the fact that U.S., European, and Canadian regulators have vetted the chemical compound and say it is safe for its intended uses.
Even so, the media, including a virtual army of bloggers, continue to cite contradictory and often irrelevant studies to propel public opinion toward pressuring lawmakers for unwarranted legislation, banning the substance at state and federal levels. The Canadian government also is considering a ban. Are their concerns based on solid science? Not really. Rather, it is based on the public's aversion to any risk, no matter how remote. Yet, while the public has become less risk tolerant, our regulatory agencies have not caught up, which is a good thing. It is impossible to eliminate risk entirely from our lives. The question more properly stated is how much risk is acceptable, and whether the science supports the idea that there is any risk to begin with.
Researchers Can't Reproduce Early Study
Take the case of BPA. Over 10 years ago, Frederick vom Saal, a University of Missouri biology professor, reported to the National Academy of Sciences that BPA may cause irregularities in mouse fetuses upon parental exposure at levels on the order of 50 quadrillionths of a gram. Vom Saal noted that the effects are observed only at low doses but not at higher doses, contradicting a fundamental tenet of toxicology that "the dose makes the poison," and eliciting considerable reaction from the toxicology community.
Numerous government and private sector scientists have unsuccessfully attempted to reproduce vom Saal's work. However, a comprehensive set of studies conducted by the National Toxicology Program (NTP) reports that BPA presents virtually no safety hazard. A review of the now massive data set concerning BPA prompted the FDA to comment that "exposure levels to BPA from food contact materials, including for infants and children, are below those that may cause health effects." It goes on to say that alternatives to BPA-containing baby bottles are available to concerned consumers.
International Agencies Confirm Safety
The European Food Safety Authority says that "the available studies cover the majority of endpoints considered relevant for assessment of reproductive effects and other toxicities and do not indicate the presence of effects on reproduction or development." Health Canada concurs, stating that "the average Canadian would need to consume several hundred cans of food per day to reach the tolerable level established by Health Canada."
In spite of this overwhelming evidence, organizations such as the Environmental Defense Fund and the Environmental Working Group, and publications such as Green Guide, Tree Hugger, and Salon use their websites to continue the call for a ban on BPA in consumer products.
Adverse Study Is Misleading
In September 2008, The Washington Post published the story, "Chemical in Plastics Connected to Health Problems in Monkeys," and the New York Times published an editorial pointing to a study done at the Yale University School of Medicine as proof of the evils of BPA and substantiation for their continued call for a legislated ban of its use in consumer products. Ultimately, a number of major retailers and manufacturers of BPA-containing products are now putting a ban into effect in their stores and factories.
However, the study that the newspapers cite is misleading, because test animals were exposed to BPA through subcutaneous injections. Humans are exposed by ingesting miniscule amounts that are only a small fraction of the exposure achieved by injection. Furthermore, the body excretes ingested substances rapidly, while subcutaneous injections result in a much longer chronic exposure.
Unfortunately, and regardless of the scientific substantiation, public opinion is easily swayed by media accounts that question a product's safety. As a result, manufacturers must exercise the utmost care to demonstrate product safety in a scientifically sound and legally defensible manner. And they must protect that product from attention that may alter its public perception in a negative manner.
Even so, the media, including a virtual army of bloggers, continue to cite contradictory and often irrelevant studies to propel public opinion toward pressuring lawmakers for unwarranted legislation, banning the substance at state and federal levels. The Canadian government also is considering a ban. Are their concerns based on solid science? Not really. Rather, it is based on the public's aversion to any risk, no matter how remote. Yet, while the public has become less risk tolerant, our regulatory agencies have not caught up, which is a good thing. It is impossible to eliminate risk entirely from our lives. The question more properly stated is how much risk is acceptable, and whether the science supports the idea that there is any risk to begin with.
Researchers Can't Reproduce Early Study
Take the case of BPA. Over 10 years ago, Frederick vom Saal, a University of Missouri biology professor, reported to the National Academy of Sciences that BPA may cause irregularities in mouse fetuses upon parental exposure at levels on the order of 50 quadrillionths of a gram. Vom Saal noted that the effects are observed only at low doses but not at higher doses, contradicting a fundamental tenet of toxicology that "the dose makes the poison," and eliciting considerable reaction from the toxicology community.
Numerous government and private sector scientists have unsuccessfully attempted to reproduce vom Saal's work. However, a comprehensive set of studies conducted by the National Toxicology Program (NTP) reports that BPA presents virtually no safety hazard. A review of the now massive data set concerning BPA prompted the FDA to comment that "exposure levels to BPA from food contact materials, including for infants and children, are below those that may cause health effects." It goes on to say that alternatives to BPA-containing baby bottles are available to concerned consumers.
International Agencies Confirm Safety
The European Food Safety Authority says that "the available studies cover the majority of endpoints considered relevant for assessment of reproductive effects and other toxicities and do not indicate the presence of effects on reproduction or development." Health Canada concurs, stating that "the average Canadian would need to consume several hundred cans of food per day to reach the tolerable level established by Health Canada."
In spite of this overwhelming evidence, organizations such as the Environmental Defense Fund and the Environmental Working Group, and publications such as Green Guide, Tree Hugger, and Salon use their websites to continue the call for a ban on BPA in consumer products.
Adverse Study Is Misleading
In September 2008, The Washington Post published the story, "Chemical in Plastics Connected to Health Problems in Monkeys," and the New York Times published an editorial pointing to a study done at the Yale University School of Medicine as proof of the evils of BPA and substantiation for their continued call for a legislated ban of its use in consumer products. Ultimately, a number of major retailers and manufacturers of BPA-containing products are now putting a ban into effect in their stores and factories.
However, the study that the newspapers cite is misleading, because test animals were exposed to BPA through subcutaneous injections. Humans are exposed by ingesting miniscule amounts that are only a small fraction of the exposure achieved by injection. Furthermore, the body excretes ingested substances rapidly, while subcutaneous injections result in a much longer chronic exposure.
Unfortunately, and regardless of the scientific substantiation, public opinion is easily swayed by media accounts that question a product's safety. As a result, manufacturers must exercise the utmost care to demonstrate product safety in a scientifically sound and legally defensible manner. And they must protect that product from attention that may alter its public perception in a negative manner.
Food Toxics and Health Hazards
Food toxicology is a health issue. You should worry about toxic chemicals in your food simply because certain chemical contaminants have been implicated in major health hazards, ranging from cancer to birth defects to asthma.
Understandably, high doses of toxic chemicals can be lethal. But how safe are low doses of these toxic chemicals? If high does are dangerously deadly, why should you be exposed to even the low doses?
Nearly all the food you consume may contain a trace of heavy metals, pesticides, and toxic chemicals. Some of these contaminants are not added to your food: they are naturally occurring contaminant substances due to the environment. However, most of them are added by food manufacturers to make your food more lasting, more appealing, and more palatable.
Most food manufacturers give their products a face-lift or makeover to make them look fresher or of higher quality. For example, cold cuts, hot dogs, and beef jerky are all dyed red to make them look fresh and tantalizing. Even children's candies, popcorns, and cereals are heavily dyed to make them more fun and enticing to young children.
Studies in rats and animals have shown that certain food dyes are toxic and carcinogenic. Certain food colors were banned, and certain food dyes have been approved by the FDA due to insufficient evidence to prove a cancer risk.
Although artificial food colors may not pose a major health risk, other than susceptibility to allergies, there is no regulatory limit on how much a food manufacturer can use in a food product, that is to say, self-regulatory, which in some cases mean "no regulation."
It is sometimes difficult to avoid food colorings totally, given that so many food items in the supermarket are colored to some degree. However, if you are concerned with your health, maybe you should pay more attention to food labels, and select products that use the natural color agents derived from beets, carrots, and spices, instead of those chemical food dyes.
In addition to food dyes, food toxics can also derive from dietary hormones, which are growth-enhancing hormones found in most meats. Residues of these hormones may affect how children mature sexually.
There has been much controversy over growth-enhancing dietary hormones in animals. Canada and some European countries believe that hormones and their metabolites in beef can be toxic and mutagenic; however, the United States insists that the hormones in beef are safe. There you go!
As a wary consumer, simply eat less beef, or buy only "certified organic" beef. Chicken and pigs are not fed growth-enhancing hormones. Another alternative is to get protein from beans and grains.
Of course, farmers apply millions of pounds of pesticides to the crops you eat. However, the risk from pesticides is relatively low to make food toxicity a major health concern. The best way to avoid pesticide toxicity is to buy organic produce. In addition, peel vegetables, such as carrots and potatoes, although their skins are most nutritious; this is a decision you have to make regarding the trade-off. It should be noted that washing the produce will not do much to get rid of the pesticides, which are already in the peels and the vegetables.
But do these food toxics, even in small does, compromise your food safety? The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is supposed to be responsible for food safety. Given that it is a complex and difficult job, does the FDA rise to the occasion? A consumer may be at a loss as to what to eat or not to eat. The bottom line: Always eat natural and go organic.
Copyright (c) 2008 Stephen Lau
Stephen Lau is a researcher and writer. He has published several books, including "No Miracle Cures" on natural healing; "How to Teach Children to Read" on activities and games to teach children reading skills; and "Blueprint for Success in Affiliate Business."
Understandably, high doses of toxic chemicals can be lethal. But how safe are low doses of these toxic chemicals? If high does are dangerously deadly, why should you be exposed to even the low doses?
Nearly all the food you consume may contain a trace of heavy metals, pesticides, and toxic chemicals. Some of these contaminants are not added to your food: they are naturally occurring contaminant substances due to the environment. However, most of them are added by food manufacturers to make your food more lasting, more appealing, and more palatable.
Most food manufacturers give their products a face-lift or makeover to make them look fresher or of higher quality. For example, cold cuts, hot dogs, and beef jerky are all dyed red to make them look fresh and tantalizing. Even children's candies, popcorns, and cereals are heavily dyed to make them more fun and enticing to young children.
Studies in rats and animals have shown that certain food dyes are toxic and carcinogenic. Certain food colors were banned, and certain food dyes have been approved by the FDA due to insufficient evidence to prove a cancer risk.
Although artificial food colors may not pose a major health risk, other than susceptibility to allergies, there is no regulatory limit on how much a food manufacturer can use in a food product, that is to say, self-regulatory, which in some cases mean "no regulation."
It is sometimes difficult to avoid food colorings totally, given that so many food items in the supermarket are colored to some degree. However, if you are concerned with your health, maybe you should pay more attention to food labels, and select products that use the natural color agents derived from beets, carrots, and spices, instead of those chemical food dyes.
In addition to food dyes, food toxics can also derive from dietary hormones, which are growth-enhancing hormones found in most meats. Residues of these hormones may affect how children mature sexually.
There has been much controversy over growth-enhancing dietary hormones in animals. Canada and some European countries believe that hormones and their metabolites in beef can be toxic and mutagenic; however, the United States insists that the hormones in beef are safe. There you go!
As a wary consumer, simply eat less beef, or buy only "certified organic" beef. Chicken and pigs are not fed growth-enhancing hormones. Another alternative is to get protein from beans and grains.
Of course, farmers apply millions of pounds of pesticides to the crops you eat. However, the risk from pesticides is relatively low to make food toxicity a major health concern. The best way to avoid pesticide toxicity is to buy organic produce. In addition, peel vegetables, such as carrots and potatoes, although their skins are most nutritious; this is a decision you have to make regarding the trade-off. It should be noted that washing the produce will not do much to get rid of the pesticides, which are already in the peels and the vegetables.
But do these food toxics, even in small does, compromise your food safety? The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is supposed to be responsible for food safety. Given that it is a complex and difficult job, does the FDA rise to the occasion? A consumer may be at a loss as to what to eat or not to eat. The bottom line: Always eat natural and go organic.
Copyright (c) 2008 Stephen Lau
Stephen Lau is a researcher and writer. He has published several books, including "No Miracle Cures" on natural healing; "How to Teach Children to Read" on activities and games to teach children reading skills; and "Blueprint for Success in Affiliate Business."
Forensic Toxicology Procedures - Collecting Toxin Samples From Corpses
When somebody is poisoned to death, a forensic medical examiner/toxicologist must undergo the hard job of determining what the poison was that killed the victim.
The reason that poisons are very popular is because they can be hidden. Toxic substances very rarely leave clues visible to the naked eye. Therefore finding a toxin is a difficult task that requires several specialized tests and involves a variety of bodily fluids and tissues.
The best hiding places for these toxins are places where chemicals enter the body, where chemicals congregate within the body, and along the thoroughfares of elimination. Therefore stomach contents, blood, and tissues surrounding needle injection sites may contain high doses of the toxic material. Analyses of brain, liver, and other tissues can disclose to the medical examiner where a drug or its metabolites accumulated. Finally, a urinalysis can be indicative of where the toxic substance and its products of metabolism are concentrated for final elimination. Here is a list of potential "hiding" places for illegal toxic substances:
Blood: Blood is perhaps the forensic toxicologist's most useful tool for finding toxins. With present day toxicological procedures, one can find essentially any drug and its major products in the blood. A blood exam tells the toxicologist what was transpiring in the body at the time of death. Concentrations of medications and drugs within the blood are proportional with the levels of intoxication and with levels that can potentially kill a person.
Stomach contents: Hospitals normally "pump" the stomach contents of survivors of drug overdoses by way of a gastric tube that is inserted through the nostril and into the stomach. Once the contents are extracted from the stomach, they are washed to remove any stomach acids and tested for the presence of drugs or poisons. During an autopsy, forensic medical examiners test the stomach contents in the same manner. Getting stomach contents is crucial where criminal investigators suspect poisoning or drug overdose. Concentrations of any drugs found in the stomach are not necessarily proportional with their levels in the blood and thus their effects on an individual.
Urine: A urinalysis is commonplace for workplace drug testing. It can also be useful during an autopsy. Since the kidneys serve as a major depot for the body's drug and toxin elimination routes, forensic medical examiners/toxicologists can many times find such toxic substances in greater concentrations in the urine. However, the relation between urine concentration of a drug and its effects in the body lacks proportion. This means that the urine level may disclose that the toxic substance had been in the blood at some earlier time. It does not determine whether the drug was exhibiting any effect on the person at the time it was collected.
Hair: Hair has the unique ability of providing an intoxication timeline for many toxic substances including lead, arsenic, and other heavy metals.
Vitreous humor: Within the cavity of the eyeball, there is a liquid called vitreous humor. This liquid does not putrefy easily like the other tissues of the body. In severely decomposed bodies, this fluid may be what is left of a body that can be tested. Concentration levels of drugs within the vitreous humor may lag behind the drug concentration levels found in blood by about 1 to 2 hours. Therefore, testing the vitreous humor reveals the concentration of a toxic substance in the blood 1 to 2 hours prior.
Liver: The liver functions to metabolize (breakdown) drugs and toxins. Testing the liver and the bile that it produces many times discloses the presence of a drug or its metabolites, the products of drug metabolism. Forensic investigators can measure drug concentrations in the liver since many drugs, especially opiates, can be found in the liver and bile, even when blood tests yield no presence of drugs. The liver may show drug concentration during the hours prior to death, and the bile may tell what drugs were present in the system during the past three to four days. However, neither test is accurate.
Insects: Forensic scientists may test insects that eat up dead bodies for drugs in the event of severely decomposed bodies. Since particular drugs tend to reside in the tissues of these bugs, they may provide information about whether a drug was present in the victim.
These locations are the most common locations for finding evidence of drugs or other toxic materials in the event of a suspected homicide.
The reason that poisons are very popular is because they can be hidden. Toxic substances very rarely leave clues visible to the naked eye. Therefore finding a toxin is a difficult task that requires several specialized tests and involves a variety of bodily fluids and tissues.
The best hiding places for these toxins are places where chemicals enter the body, where chemicals congregate within the body, and along the thoroughfares of elimination. Therefore stomach contents, blood, and tissues surrounding needle injection sites may contain high doses of the toxic material. Analyses of brain, liver, and other tissues can disclose to the medical examiner where a drug or its metabolites accumulated. Finally, a urinalysis can be indicative of where the toxic substance and its products of metabolism are concentrated for final elimination. Here is a list of potential "hiding" places for illegal toxic substances:
Blood: Blood is perhaps the forensic toxicologist's most useful tool for finding toxins. With present day toxicological procedures, one can find essentially any drug and its major products in the blood. A blood exam tells the toxicologist what was transpiring in the body at the time of death. Concentrations of medications and drugs within the blood are proportional with the levels of intoxication and with levels that can potentially kill a person.
Stomach contents: Hospitals normally "pump" the stomach contents of survivors of drug overdoses by way of a gastric tube that is inserted through the nostril and into the stomach. Once the contents are extracted from the stomach, they are washed to remove any stomach acids and tested for the presence of drugs or poisons. During an autopsy, forensic medical examiners test the stomach contents in the same manner. Getting stomach contents is crucial where criminal investigators suspect poisoning or drug overdose. Concentrations of any drugs found in the stomach are not necessarily proportional with their levels in the blood and thus their effects on an individual.
Urine: A urinalysis is commonplace for workplace drug testing. It can also be useful during an autopsy. Since the kidneys serve as a major depot for the body's drug and toxin elimination routes, forensic medical examiners/toxicologists can many times find such toxic substances in greater concentrations in the urine. However, the relation between urine concentration of a drug and its effects in the body lacks proportion. This means that the urine level may disclose that the toxic substance had been in the blood at some earlier time. It does not determine whether the drug was exhibiting any effect on the person at the time it was collected.
Hair: Hair has the unique ability of providing an intoxication timeline for many toxic substances including lead, arsenic, and other heavy metals.
Vitreous humor: Within the cavity of the eyeball, there is a liquid called vitreous humor. This liquid does not putrefy easily like the other tissues of the body. In severely decomposed bodies, this fluid may be what is left of a body that can be tested. Concentration levels of drugs within the vitreous humor may lag behind the drug concentration levels found in blood by about 1 to 2 hours. Therefore, testing the vitreous humor reveals the concentration of a toxic substance in the blood 1 to 2 hours prior.
Liver: The liver functions to metabolize (breakdown) drugs and toxins. Testing the liver and the bile that it produces many times discloses the presence of a drug or its metabolites, the products of drug metabolism. Forensic investigators can measure drug concentrations in the liver since many drugs, especially opiates, can be found in the liver and bile, even when blood tests yield no presence of drugs. The liver may show drug concentration during the hours prior to death, and the bile may tell what drugs were present in the system during the past three to four days. However, neither test is accurate.
Insects: Forensic scientists may test insects that eat up dead bodies for drugs in the event of severely decomposed bodies. Since particular drugs tend to reside in the tissues of these bugs, they may provide information about whether a drug was present in the victim.
These locations are the most common locations for finding evidence of drugs or other toxic materials in the event of a suspected homicide.
The Toxicology Test - Too Much or Too Little Drugs
On the TV show CSI, one of the laboratories in the show that deals with searching for minute evidence of foreign substances such as drugs in the blood or tissues of a victim is a toxicology lab. A "tox lab" result can determine if a victim was poisoned to death which could mean the possibility of a homicide or a suicide. Whichever crime it is, the deceased obviously was not so lucky.
Toxicology is a hybrid of physiology and chemistry that deals with drugs, poisons, and other toxic materials, and how these substances change or harm living beings, especially humans. The very first toxicological test dates back to 1775 when Swedish chemist, Karl Wilhelm Scheele, found a way to prove that arsenic (As) was to blame in a suspicious death.
Scheele discovered that chlorinated water converts arsenic to arsenous acid and that adding metallic zinc (Zn) and heating the acid solution releases arsine gas. These gaseous molecules then settle onto a cold vessel where arsenic precipitates on the vessel. In 1821, this technique was first used to find arsenic in the stomach and urine of poisoned people. From then, the field of forensic toxicology began.
The job of a modern day forensic toxicologist is to find a toxic substance and determine its effect on the individual who ingested it. A forensic toxicologist may do the following:
Assess the state of drunkenness of a victim involved in an auto or industrial accident.
Determine whether somebody died from a poison or from natural causes.
Assess whether drugs played a role in somebody's seizures or coma or in a culprit's actions.
Conversely, the absence of a drug in a person's system may be just as important. Let us suppose that toxicological tests yielded no drugs in somebody who is displaying erratic or bizarre behavior. This situation can call for a psychiatric evaluation. If the toxicological results determine that the seizure medication was less than normal in the blood for the driver of a motor vehicle involved in an accident, he may conclude that the seizure was the cause of the accident.
The next time when you watch CSI, pay attention to what the technicians look for whenever CSI's investigate a crime scene involving a death by poison.
Fabiola Castillo is an online marketer for the website NinjaCOPS SuperStore. This virtual store specializes in home security products where you can buy hidden spy cameras, kubatons, cell phone stun guns, nunchaku, air Tasers, expandable batons, and many other self defense products.
Toxicology is a hybrid of physiology and chemistry that deals with drugs, poisons, and other toxic materials, and how these substances change or harm living beings, especially humans. The very first toxicological test dates back to 1775 when Swedish chemist, Karl Wilhelm Scheele, found a way to prove that arsenic (As) was to blame in a suspicious death.
Scheele discovered that chlorinated water converts arsenic to arsenous acid and that adding metallic zinc (Zn) and heating the acid solution releases arsine gas. These gaseous molecules then settle onto a cold vessel where arsenic precipitates on the vessel. In 1821, this technique was first used to find arsenic in the stomach and urine of poisoned people. From then, the field of forensic toxicology began.
The job of a modern day forensic toxicologist is to find a toxic substance and determine its effect on the individual who ingested it. A forensic toxicologist may do the following:
Assess the state of drunkenness of a victim involved in an auto or industrial accident.
Determine whether somebody died from a poison or from natural causes.
Assess whether drugs played a role in somebody's seizures or coma or in a culprit's actions.
Conversely, the absence of a drug in a person's system may be just as important. Let us suppose that toxicological tests yielded no drugs in somebody who is displaying erratic or bizarre behavior. This situation can call for a psychiatric evaluation. If the toxicological results determine that the seizure medication was less than normal in the blood for the driver of a motor vehicle involved in an accident, he may conclude that the seizure was the cause of the accident.
The next time when you watch CSI, pay attention to what the technicians look for whenever CSI's investigate a crime scene involving a death by poison.
Fabiola Castillo is an online marketer for the website NinjaCOPS SuperStore. This virtual store specializes in home security products where you can buy hidden spy cameras, kubatons, cell phone stun guns, nunchaku, air Tasers, expandable batons, and many other self defense products.
Types of Forensic Science
Criminalistics is the application of various sciences to answer questions relating to examination and comparison of biological evidence, trace evidence, impression evidence (such as fingerprints, shoeprints, and tire tracks), controlled substances, firearms, and other evidence in criminal investigations. Some of the forensic science disciplines are detailed under.
Forensic odontology is the study of uniqueness of dentition of all human beings. Also known as Forensic Dentistry, it deals with proper handling, examination and evaluation of dental evidence, which is then presented in the interest of justice. The evidence that may be derived from teeth is the age, in case of children, and also identification of the person to whom the teeth belong. This is done using dental records or ante-mortem that is, before death photographs. The other type of evidence is that of bite marks, left on either the victim (by the attacker), the perpetrator (from the victim of an attack), or on an object found at the crime scene. Bite marks have often been found on children who are abused.
Forensic toxicology refers to the use of toxicology to aid medico-legal investigation of death using poisoning. Several toxic substances do not produce characteristic lesions. In such as case, if a toxic reaction is suspected, visual investigation may not suffice. A forensic toxicologist must consider the context of an investigation, in particular, if any physical symptoms are recorded, as also any evidence collected at the crime scene that may narrow down the search, such as pill bottles, powders, trace residue, and any available chemicals. Armed with this information, a forensic toxicologist can determine which toxic substances were present, in what concentrations and the probable effects of those chemicals on the person. Determining the substance ingested is often complicated by the body's natural processes, as it is rare for a chemical to remain in its original form once in the body.
Forensic engineering deals with the causes of failure of devices and structures. It is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail to operate or do not function as intended. A criminal aspect is possible in any investigation but is not always the case as civil cases are much more common. Generally, the purpose of any forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component. It also involves the investigation of intellectual property claims, especially patents. Methods used in forensic investigations include reverse engineering, inspection of witness statements, a working knowledge of current standards, as well as the examination of the failed component itself. The fractured surface of a failed product can reveal much information as to how the item failed and the loading pattern prior to its failure.
Forensic economics is the study and interpretation of the economic damage evidence that includes present day calculations of lost earnings and benefits, the lost value of a business, lost business profits, lost value of household service, replacement labor costs and future medical care costs. Forensic accounting on the other hand, is defined as the study and interpretation of accounting evidence
Forensic psychology and forensic psychiatry deals with the legal aspects of human behavior. They deal with the application of psychological principles and knowledge to various legal activities involving child custody disputes, child abuse of an emotional, physical and sexual nature, assessing one's personal capacity to manage one's affairs, matters of competency to stand trial, criminal responsibility and personal injury and advising judges in matters relating to sentencing regarding various mitigates and the actuarial assessment of future risks.
Forensic anthropology is the application of physical anthropology in a legal setting, usually for the recovery and identification of the skeletal remains of the dead body whereas Forensic entomology deals with the examination of infesting insects in, on, and around human remains to assist in determination of time or location of death. Forensic evidence is referred to as the scientific evidence collected from a crime scene.
Forensic odontology is the study of uniqueness of dentition of all human beings. Also known as Forensic Dentistry, it deals with proper handling, examination and evaluation of dental evidence, which is then presented in the interest of justice. The evidence that may be derived from teeth is the age, in case of children, and also identification of the person to whom the teeth belong. This is done using dental records or ante-mortem that is, before death photographs. The other type of evidence is that of bite marks, left on either the victim (by the attacker), the perpetrator (from the victim of an attack), or on an object found at the crime scene. Bite marks have often been found on children who are abused.
Forensic toxicology refers to the use of toxicology to aid medico-legal investigation of death using poisoning. Several toxic substances do not produce characteristic lesions. In such as case, if a toxic reaction is suspected, visual investigation may not suffice. A forensic toxicologist must consider the context of an investigation, in particular, if any physical symptoms are recorded, as also any evidence collected at the crime scene that may narrow down the search, such as pill bottles, powders, trace residue, and any available chemicals. Armed with this information, a forensic toxicologist can determine which toxic substances were present, in what concentrations and the probable effects of those chemicals on the person. Determining the substance ingested is often complicated by the body's natural processes, as it is rare for a chemical to remain in its original form once in the body.
Forensic engineering deals with the causes of failure of devices and structures. It is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail to operate or do not function as intended. A criminal aspect is possible in any investigation but is not always the case as civil cases are much more common. Generally, the purpose of any forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component. It also involves the investigation of intellectual property claims, especially patents. Methods used in forensic investigations include reverse engineering, inspection of witness statements, a working knowledge of current standards, as well as the examination of the failed component itself. The fractured surface of a failed product can reveal much information as to how the item failed and the loading pattern prior to its failure.
Forensic economics is the study and interpretation of the economic damage evidence that includes present day calculations of lost earnings and benefits, the lost value of a business, lost business profits, lost value of household service, replacement labor costs and future medical care costs. Forensic accounting on the other hand, is defined as the study and interpretation of accounting evidence
Forensic psychology and forensic psychiatry deals with the legal aspects of human behavior. They deal with the application of psychological principles and knowledge to various legal activities involving child custody disputes, child abuse of an emotional, physical and sexual nature, assessing one's personal capacity to manage one's affairs, matters of competency to stand trial, criminal responsibility and personal injury and advising judges in matters relating to sentencing regarding various mitigates and the actuarial assessment of future risks.
Forensic anthropology is the application of physical anthropology in a legal setting, usually for the recovery and identification of the skeletal remains of the dead body whereas Forensic entomology deals with the examination of infesting insects in, on, and around human remains to assist in determination of time or location of death. Forensic evidence is referred to as the scientific evidence collected from a crime scene.
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